How does continuity occur in society

Only after these pilot WUAs had performed well during the drought years of and did the government allow the establishment of WUAs in other provinces Veldwisch It must be noted that these WUAs are far from complying with the internationally acknowledged concept of WUAs especially in terms of participation, independence, decentralization, and adherence to hydrological boundaries , but are instead strongly controlled by the state Veldwisch With the implementation of WUAs, double-loop learning has taken place, but only after significant effort by well-connected people at high levels in the political hierarchy.

This change of collective choice rules was, however, not followed by an adaptation of constitutional rules such as the water law to accommodate WUAs. Therefore, WUAs are implemented in an institutionally uncertain environment and, for example, are charged taxes even though they should be non-profit organizations and thus exempt from taxpaying P Similar to the introduction of WUAs, the implementation of hydrological boundaries was undertaken mainly due to the initiative of a high-ranking senior official within the Ministry Yalcin and Mollinga The aim was not so much to make water management more effective but instead to limit the influence of the agricultural sector and local and provincial governors on water distribution by unlinking the boundaries of water management organizations from administrative units Yalcin and Mollinga , Wegerich , P 1, P In the following period, the province water management organizations were replaced by organizations established along hydrological boundaries.

This reform remained rather superficial, however, since it changed neither informal institutions nor the influence of local administration on water distribution P The dominance of the rigid agricultural sector over the water sector often hinders change in the water sector Abdullaev et al.

Even today, institutions such as the state order system restrict experimentation and innovation in water use. The state order system limits crop diversity and restricts farmers from adapting to changing water availability, for instance by changing cropping patterns or applying traditional water-saving methods Thurman , Hofman As a consequence of this mismanagement of the ecological and social resources, cotton yields as well as quality continue to decrease Peyrouse A recent example of the resistance of the system towards adaptive and transformative change was observed in the agricultural sector.

After the global financial crisis hit Russia and Kazakhstan in , the Uzbek social system became exposed to disturbance in the form of thousands of migrant workers returning to their Uzbek villages. Instead of creating an enabling environment for new jobs such as through loosening the state order system , the Uzbek government reacted by issuing instructions for local administrations to make farmers hire workers in order to absorb the additional labor force.

Since under the state order, farmers were not able to pay additional farm workers, they reportedly created false lists with names of people they allegedly hired in order to appease the local administration IWPR These marginal changes represent single-loop learning and do not seem to be suited to adapting the SES and preparing it for similar disturbances in the future. In Uzbekistan, informal institutions often run contrary to formal institutions, thus rendering rigid formal institutions rather meaningless for day-to-day water management Helmke and Levitsky Formally, water is allocated according to the amount applied for.

In practice—especially downstream—farmers often do not receive their share because access to water is highly dependent on economic and political ties Veldwisch Formally, limits for water use are set, and overuse is sanctioned with penalties. In practice, however, exceeding the limit is often possible without sanctions Veldwisch To prevent illegal pumping by upstream users, WUA managers use personal ties with electricity providers to switch off electricity in the upstream region in order to provide enough flow for the downstream users Abdullaev et al.

In practice, however, WUA managers are usually appointed by the local governor. Governors are personally responsible for delivering the amounts of cotton and wheat prescribed by the state order.

This creates great incentives for them to interfere in water allocation, and the governors reportedly give instructions to WUA managers on a daily basis Veldwisch Discussion: persistence of Uzbek water institutions The Uzbek case mirrors pathological resource management Gunderson and Pritchard Soviet water managers were successful in achieving the narrowly defined goal of providing enough water for cotton monoculture in the Central Asian republics. This success encouraged the rapid enlargement of irrigated agriculture in the region K-phase and the overuse of water resources, leading to the desiccation of the Aral Sea.

As a result, Uzbekistan is highly dependent on agricultural production today, especially cotton, and the unsustainable use of its water resources. The newly established Republic of Uzbekistan did not use the crisis of the breakdown of the Soviet Union to adapt or transform its institutional system to better fit the demands of a changing SES. The economy, and especially export commodities such as cotton, are still tightly controlled by the state ICG Water is rationed and reused during drought years, and rice planting is prohibited.

Both measures are incremental and short-term reactions single-loop learning when actually long-term, transformative solutions are needed to significantly reduce water use and provide environmental flows.

These solutions include a switch to less water-intensive crops double-loop learning and a reduction in agricultural activity triple-loop learning. The switch could be supported by transforming the water law such that it addresses recent social and ecological changes and provides a stable legal basis for WUAs. Instead, a strong belief in technical solutions prevails and limits the space for alternative approaches. For example, government authorities still perceive the Soviet plan to divert water from the Siberian rivers to Central Asia as a viable solution to water scarcity instead of curbing water demand and settling international disputes over water P 4.

Institutional change is realized mostly via decrees, bypassing the legislative, which adds uncertainty and a lack of transparency in the institutional system. Selectively, new rules have been introduced where there were incentives for them, which has created an institutional patchwork. New institutions are isolated, and no consistent approach to water sector reforms is observable.

This small-scale approach does not seem appropriate for solving large-scale problems such as the transformation of a socialist system into a democratic, market-oriented one, or the desiccation of the Aral Sea and adaptation to climate change.

As a consequence, South Africa developed an extended system of dams and international water transfer schemes Muller However, in water-scarce years, the provision of irrigation water to farmers has to be curbed P Access to safe drinking water and sanitation is far from comprehensive, but progress has been made in recent years Bohensky and Lynam South Africa has been undergoing transformation since the end of the apartheid regime in After years of economic sanctions, domestic markets and foreign trade were liberalized, and a parliament was democratically elected.

Between and , income poverty declined from In addition to these paramount political, economic, and social changes, the country is projected to be highly affected by extreme ecological changes as a consequence of climate change. For example, by , temperatures are projected to rise by roughly 1. Rising mean temperatures and changes in runoff and hydrology can already be detected Kruger and Shongwe , Boko et al. Institutional continuity and change since the end of the apartheid era During the apartheid era, the South African social system was rather resistant to change.

In the water sector, the persistence of institutions such as the Water Act of accumulated pressure for change: most of the population was excluded from decision-making and was not adequately provided with drinking water and sanitation, and the ecological impacts of water use were ignored Bohensky and Lynam , Bohensky Large-scale irrigation agriculture was subsidized through capital-intensive engineering projects such as dams and water transfer schemes Stein , P These were associated with the well-known negative effects in the social system such as resettlement of mostly poor and black communities to marginal lands and in the ecological system such as impacts on water quality and quantity, downstream floodplains, and migratory fish species Bohensky and Lynam Following the end of the apartheid regime in , the South African social system transformed its constitutional rules, beginning with a new constitution Republic of South Africa and followed by the Water Services Act Republic of South Africa and the National Water Act Republic of South Africa The latter has been internationally praised for representing state-of-the-art water law because it places basic equitable access to water and environmentally sustainable water use at the top of the agenda de Coning and Sherwill In line with the new constitution, all of the new institutions are based on equity, sustainability, and efficiency, and thus represent a clear break from the former institutions of the apartheid regime.

Water rights are no longer tied to land rights, basin management and Catchment Management Agencies CMAs, organizations based on stakeholder participation and decentralized water management were introduced, programs for the nation-wide provision of drinking water and sanitation were initiated, and environmental flows are ensured through the establishment of an environmental reserve of water resources.

Some of the former institutions have remained, however, to provide planning reliability for water users. For example, water rights that lawfully existed under apartheid law will be acknowledged until a license needs to be applied for under the new water law or the law foresees otherwise Republic of South Africa South African water governance institutions display a high level of flexibility.

Under South African law, different parts of a new legislation can be promulgated at different times. Thus, the largest part of the National Water Act was promulgated in August , but sensitive sections, such as the ones on licensing and levying water charges, were promulgated only a year later Republic of South Africa The National Water Act provides a framework, and the elaboration of regulations takes place during implementation.

By means of this enabling legislation, the authority for developing legal instruments and supporting policies for implementation is transferred to the state administration in charge in this case, the Department of Water Affairs [DWA] and thus can be tailored to the particular needs of the situation. In the case of the establishment of Catchment Management Agencies at the meso-level, however, this flexibility has had negative repercussions inasmuch as the Act did not specify criteria for CMA proposals.

The National Water Act was designed to allow for a high degree of flexibility in its implementation. This phased approach was deemed necessary due to the comprehensive changes the Act required and to the limited human and financial resources available for its implementation de Coning An example of the flexibility of South African water institutions are water licenses.

These licenses are granted for a period not longer than 40 years and are subject to review every five years Republic of South Africa Since the reallocation of water from relatively low productivity uses, such as agriculture, to industry is being discussed in South Africa Otieno and Ochieng , this flexibility may prove helpful.

Should there be political consensus on the issue, the review of licenses every few years would allow for the implementation of such change. However, the first revision, which would have been due in , is still ongoing—indicating that the ambitious goals may not always be met in the context of limited financial and human resources. Catchment management forums provide an example of the ability to learn and the flexibility of the legislative framework.

These forums, which are not mentioned in the National Water Act , are implemented at a sub-catchment level below CMAs to enable discussions and participation at the local level P After their usefulness for water management and for establishing CMAs became evident, however, the National Water Resource Strategy explicitly mentioned their positive role in transmitting local knowledge and facilitating stakeholder participation, and encourages the founding of such forums Karar , DWAF Unlike the new set of formal institutions, some informal institutions remain rather rigid.

Similar to the Uzbek case, the technical control paradigm and hydraulic mission, which characterized the water sector during the apartheid era and resulted in an extensive water infrastructure of dams and water transfer schemes, is still prevalent Swatuk , This strong belief in technical solutions to water scarcity currently undermines the needed innovation to confront the future impacts of climate change such as the change from supply to demand management of water resources; P John Howard, through inspiration e.

Nelson Mandella Continuity; used their power to influence others, maintain traditions and encouraging people to believe what they themselves believe.

Continuity; most churches maintain continuities through their ceremonies and beliefs. Churches are conservative, perpetuate morals, values and customs of their doctrine. Continuity; formal assembly, uniform, orientation day, awards presented.

More mothers in the workforce has caused change in families. Continuity; celebrations, religious customs, relationships, the concept of family and what it means has remained constant. Theories of social change and evaluating their role in explaining continuities and changes in society. Theory - is a statement that organizes a set of concepts in a meaningful way by explaining the relationship among them.

A full grasp of social change needs more than an understanding of some specific factors that can provoke change. We need a broader theory that explains how, why and what direction social change in general takes place.

A successful theory of social change must do more than describe events it must explain how and why change takes the form that it does. Modern socio theorists believe that development and change could occur in a multilinear way i. They did not believe that industrial societies were necessarily superior to rural based or traditional societies and did not view all changes as progress.

Strengths; It says that societies can develop in many different ways not just one path. It believes that not all change is progress. Weaknesses; Only looks at slow change, evolution and doesn't explain quick change e. This theory says that if change occurs, its temporarily alters the balance in society, brings about adjustment or change to bring about a new equilibrium and balance once again in society. Believes social change occurs when internal or external forces upset society's balance e.

In simple societies there are fewer institutions to perform functions family, education economic production of food. In more complex societies more institutions perform functions e. Strengths; shows how society deals with change and adjusts to it Weaknesses; More about institutional order.

Concentrates on destructive change. Doesn't deal well with technology, or economic change. Change is the result of inequalities in society e. Conflict occurs between groups with power, who wish to maintain their value and prestige and those who have no power but wish to challenge the existing power structures.

Strengths; Alot of change does occur through recognizes that side of society. Explains human nature, not everyone always agrees and everyone wants more power.

Weaknesses; Not all change requires conflict in society. Provides little indication of future directions of change. Change; an alteration in the way things are done in society Progress; improvements for the better, getting something better Therefore do all changes always lead to improvements in people's lives in the micro and macro world.

NO a culture may feel that in changing they are abandoned their traditional way of life, which may be very important to them due to e. Also change may be forces upon a society or culture e. The Jews under Hitler. YES change can be progress as no society would be willing to change a good life for a poorer one. Australia' change to incorporate women and indigenous issues into mainstream political life.

Which do not? Groups; people who gather together because they have something in common Benefits; gaining something good or positive. Therefore who gains something positive from change and who doesn't within the micro and macro world. Most other groups do too. Lower class members are unfamiliar with technology due to poverty and lack of education and fall behind in society.

Westernisation; the process of countries adopting the practices and values of western countries, especially USA eg. Modernisation; the process of countries moving from traditional societies focused on continuities to modern societies which accept change. Industrialisation; the process of moving from a society based on agriculture to a society based on industry as the main means of production.

Are these 3 processes going to happen to all countries of the world at some stage YES, the world reflects a move towards these three processes in the system or organisation called globalisation. The influence and demands of the World Bank to follow a western style economy to gain access to loan funds.

Technology is becoming so much more prolific and affordable that everyone is exposed - economic base of many countries. NO, Some countries are economically and culturally strong enough to maintain their independence from globalisation.

Cuba is still an independent country despite its proximity to the US. Persons are expected to blend in and work for the good of the group, but attitudes are changing. Until the end of second world war the interests of individuals were suppressed under a patriarchal system. Harmony amongst people is the basis of Japanese society. Japanese are extremely sensitive to any conflict and avoidance can be observed. Traditional Japan; authority and power was held by shoguns and were recognized as individuals.

Relationships between people was dictated by the caste system. Women non existent, position determined by their family. Polite and plain language. Contemporary Japan; Abolishment of caste system, rise of middle class has show growth in sense of individualism in males and females. Adolescents are expressing themselves openly, choice of career path, expectations of quality of life.

Evidence language and bowing. Improvement in women's position, can vote, access to work. Through westernisation 2 language forms are slowing becoming one. Warlords and Samurai kept peace in early Japan under control of shogun military leader Today society is governed by democratically elected monarchy.

Family and peer groups are important groups in society. Traditional society Family; extended family unit, ie. Mainly subsistence farming. Ie responsible for welfare, health and education of members. Arranged marriages. Husband head of the house. Division of labour based on gender. Government; Feudal society structure around clans. Emperor nominated ruler supported by shoguns and samurais. Meiji Restoration saw movement towards democratic society.

Education; reserved mainly for daimyos and nobles. This led to literate society. Contemporary society Family; Mainly nuclear families, some extended still exist in city due to high living costs.

Gender roles in family re similar. Government; Bicameral system, emperor symbolic head of state. Constitutional democracy. Equal access, and education still instills cultural values. The importance of ceremonies like the tea ceremony. Traditional Culture; Importance of Buddhism and Shintoism to ritual; and beliefs.

Confucianism reinforced the caste system, values, distribution of power and authority. Art and artifacts forces mainly on nature. Contemporary Japan; Role of religious beliefs slowly declining. Adopting of western ideas and values. Change in social habits and prefer western life e. Macdonald over sushi, baseball over sumo wrestling. Emergence of subculture group e. Persistence of geisha both traditional and ones for tourists. Traditional Environment; Predominately feudal, agricultural society.

Closed society, superiority, limited opportunity to exchange ideas, values and technology, pre Commodore Perry. Control over the adoption of anything foreign. Opportunity to adopt Confucian values from China thus reinforcing caste system. Contemporary Japan; Democratically elected, open society whereby western ideas, technology and culture are readily adopted through diffusion and acculturation.

World leader in technology, highly industrial, major export, major importer of food and raw materials. A historical look at Japan will allow us to view its continuities and changes and the interrelationship between time, person, society and culture. Examine the nature of traditional society and culture in that country The emperor in Japan held superior status and was fundamental to Japanese nationalism.

Most of the population were farmers or craftsmen, the position of nobility being filled by influential; families. Japan was controlled by daimyos or warlords. The warrior class or samurais increased in importance as it was military strength which ensured dominance. Japan was governed by shoguns until when the old emperor Meiji was restored to power this is known as the Meiji restoration period.

Under shoguns the samurais continued to gain power and were the only class permitted to carry a sword. Outside class system were those who performed unclean task, classless, non human. Th capital of Edo was moved to Tokyo and it was mandatory for families to register with local Buddhist temples. While Shinto was traditional religion is Japan both Confucianism and Buddhism was introduced by china. The family, the traditional family unit or "ie" was fundamental to Japanese society.

They had to honor their ancestors and maintain continuity of the family unit. Loyalty and filial duty were expected of all members who were subordinate to the head. If there was no son to inherit the role of head then a son in law might take on the role, when there were no children adoption was an appropriate solution.

In constitution which spelt the demise of the ie, choices of spouse, inheritance, property rights were changes to reflect equality of gender and rights of the individual. Within the home, religious rites were performed at the Buddhist alter in the home. Power and authority, the control of power is a feature of the history of every nation. In Japan there was a dramatic move from the centralized limited access to power structure of its feudal period to the more open and democratic practices of today.

From the time of the Fujiwara period power in Japan had been in the hands of the shoguns. These were families of noble birth and exerted great influence and control over the political and military power of Japan. Towards the middle of the 19th century, the power of the shoguns began to weaken.

A coup was staged by a fraction of samurai who claim to be replacing the emperor in his rightful position of power seized the control of government from the shogun and installed a new leadership.

New leaders of the Meiji restoration decided to actively seek innovation and western ideas into all aspects of Japanese society. The changes that followed were reestablishing the old imperial style government. Centralizing power, downgrading the old institutions, rationalizing the bureaucracy and improving the nations military power and abolishing the feudal system of privileges. Industrialization and westernisation, establishing a constitutional democracy with a national parliament.

All of this took place in thirty years During the Meiji restoration businesses had to reply on the government for the capital funds which they needed to get established. A partnership was formed which gave both business and government stability.

The families which responded most quickly to the Meiji period needs accumulated immense economic control and huge industrial organisations.

These financial cliques were extremely powerful. After WW2, the Zaibatsu were broken up. The American occupation of Japan after WW2 brought with its other substantial changes. A new constitution was formed, women were given the vote, education system revised, land reform program was put in place and labour unions developed.

Japan had a highly valued sense of national identity and cultural heritage. Japan's subsequent success industrially and economically reflect her ability to sift imported values and achievement and glean only those which will prove worthwhile. There was a transformation of Japan from feudal, with rigid caste system to democratic parliament with no class system and an industrialized economy begun with the Meiji restoration and was completed with the American occupation.

Apply one theory of social change appropriate to the selected country By applying the functionalist theory to social change within Japan we can see how it has occurred due to a disruption in the balance.

This lead to adjustments in other parts of the system and a new equilibrium level is reached, while balance is restored. During the Tokogawa period equilibrium was maintained however change occurred through the arrival of the USA and Commodore Perry in the s. This ended Japans isolation with the introduction of trade.

Next the Meiji restoration period brought about adjustments such as; changed laws, generalized government under emperor, increased power of merchant class and dismantling of caste system. Here it is plausible to observe that individuals change their attitudes and values slowly, through exposure to other individuals and behaviors. And the attitudes and values of a new generation are usually transmitted through processes that are highly decentralized -- again suggesting a slow and gradual process of change.

So this suggests that changes in attitudes and values might behave analogously to the spread of a pathogen through a population -- with a slow and continuous spread of "contagion" resulting in a gradual change in population attitudes. Consider last the example of social measures such as crime rates or teen pregnancy rates.

If we take it as a premise that crime and teen pregnancy are influenced by social factors that in turn influence the behavior of individuals, and if we take it that these background social factors change slowly and continuously -- then it is credible to reason that the aggregate measures of the associated behaviors will change slowly and continuously as well.

The reasoning here is probabilistic: when large numbers of people with a specified set of background social psychologies are exposed to common environmental circumstances, then it is plausible to predict that the average rate of teen pregnancy will remain fairly steady if the background circumstances remain steady.

These are all reasons for expecting a degree of stability and continuity in social arrangements and social behavior. But before we conclude that the social world is a continuous place, consider this: We also have some pretty clear models of how social phenomena might occur in a dis -continuous fashion.

Critical mass phenomena, tipping points, and catastrophic failures are examples of groups of social phenomena where we should expect discontinuities. The behavior of a disease in a population may change dramatically once a certain percentage of the population is infected critical mass ; a new slang expression "yada yada yada" may abruptly change its frequency of useage once a certain number of celebrities have adopted it tipping point ; a civic organization may be stretched to the breaking point by the addition of new unruly members and may suddenly collapse or mutate.

The hypothesis of punctuated equilibrium brings this sort of discontinuity into Darwinian theory of evolution. So there are some good foundational reasons for expecting a degree of continuity in the social environment; but there are also convincing models of social behavior that lead to important instances of discontinuous outcomes. This all seems to lead to the slightly worrisome piece of advice: don't bet on the future when the stakes are high.

Stock markets collapse; unexpected wars occur; and previously harmonious social groups fall into fratricidal violence. And there is no fool-proof way of determining whether a singularity is just around the corner. Newer Post Older Post Home. Subscribe to: Post Comments Atom.